The term Mahayana literally means “Great Vehicle.” It is the self-designation of a movement that arose within Indian Buddhism around the 1st century BCE and came to define Buddhism in East Asia. The name implies that the path is bigger — that it can carry more beings, or that it offers a more universal path to awakening. This article explores the historical, philosophical, and practical developments that defined the tradition.

What was new in Mahayana #

Several developments distinguish Mahayana from the earlier schools:

  1. The bodhisattva ideal. Where the arhat aims at personal liberation, the bodhisattva takes a vow to attain Buddhahood for the sake of all beings. This is rooted in texts like the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Lotus Sutra.
  2. A new scriptural canon. The Mahayana Sutras — most famously the Heart Sutra, the Diamond Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, and the Avatamsaka Sutra — were presented as the word of the Buddha himself, often revealed centuries after his death. They are central to the Mahayana tradition.
  3. The teaching of emptiness (sunyata). Perhaps the most distinctive Mahayana contribution, developed in the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom) literature and elaborated by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna (c. 150-250 CE). Emptiness does not mean nothingness; it means that all phenomena lack inherent, independent, fixed existence.
  4. The multiplicity of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The Mahayana world includes Amitabha Buddha, the celestial Buddha of infinite light; Avalokiteshvara (Kuan Yin in Chinese, Kannon in Japanese), the bodhisattva of compassion; Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom; and many others.
  5. A more devotional, relational practice. The earlier traditions emphasized personal effort on the path; Mahayana also developed devotional practices — invoking Buddhas and bodhisattvas, pilgrimage, and recitation of their names.

The “vehicle” metaphor #

Mahayana thinkers compared the three vehicles of Buddhism:

  • Sravakayana — the vehicle of the “hearers” (the arhat path of the early schools)
  • Pratyekabuddhayana — the vehicle of the “solitary realizers”
  • Bodhisattvayana — the Mahayana, the great vehicle, in which one vows to attain Buddhahood for all beings

The metaphor is not a statement of value; it is a way of describing the scope of the path. The Bodhisattvayana is the largest in scope because it includes all beings in its concern.

The metaphor has been used both inclusively and polemically. In its inclusive form, the three vehicles are different paths for different temperaments, all leading to the same awakening. In its polemical form, the earlier schools are the “Hinayana” — a pejorative term meaning “Lesser Vehicle” — and the Mahayana is the only true path.

The inclusive form is the more common in modern usage. The term “Hinayana” is considered offensive and is rarely used in contemporary discourse.

The bodhisattva path in detail #

The bodhisattva path is the heart of Mahayana. The bodhisattva is one who, having developed the resolve to attain Buddhahood for the sake of all beings (bodhicitta), undertakes the long training of the ten perfections (paramitas):

  1. Generosity (dana) — giving of material resources, fearlessness, and Dharma
  2. Ethical conduct (sila) — the moral trainings, observed for the benefit of all beings
  3. Patience (ksanti) — the ability to endure hardship and difficulty without retaliation
  4. Effort (virya) — the energy to continue the practice despite obstacles
  5. Concentration (samadhi) — the unification of mind through meditation
  6. Wisdom (prajna) — the insight into the nature of reality, especially emptiness
  7. Skillful means (upaya) — the ability to teach effectively, with attention to the audience
  8. Vow (pranidhana) — the commitment to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings
  9. Power (bala) — the spiritual power that develops through the practice
  10. Knowledge (jnana) — the comprehensive understanding of reality

The path takes many lifetimes to complete. The bodhisattva is willing to be reborn, again and again, in any form that helps liberate beings — including the hell realms, if necessary.

This is a radical shift from the arhat ideal. The arhat path aims at personal liberation; the bodhisattva path aims at full Buddhahood for the benefit of all. The arhat has done what was to be done; the bodhisattva has a much greater task.

The teaching of emptiness in detail #

The teaching of emptiness is the most distinctive philosophical contribution of Mahayana. It was developed by the Madhyamaka school of Nagarjuna, in the 2nd-3rd century CE, and elaborated in the Prajnaparamita literature.

Emptiness does not mean nothingness. It is the observation that all phenomena lack inherent, independent, fixed existence. A chair, for example, exists as a chair — it has a function, a name, a relationship to human purposes — but it does not have an inherent “chair-ness” that exists independently of conditions. The chair is empty of inherent existence; it exists only as a designation, a designation imposed by the mind.

This is not nihilism. The chair is real; we can sit on it. But the chair is not ultimately real in the way that we usually take it to be. The realization of emptiness is the realization of the conventional nature of all things.

Nagarjuna’s key work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way), uses logical analysis to show that all phenomena lack inherent existence. The work is one of the most influential texts in all of Buddhist philosophy, and it remains the subject of intensive study in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhist philosophy.

The classical Madhyamaka position: things exist conventionally, but not ultimately. The “two truths” doctrine — conventional truth and ultimate truth — is the framework for understanding this. The two truths are not two different kinds of reality; they are two ways of looking at the same reality.

The multiplicity of Buddhas #

The Mahayana world includes a vast pantheon of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The most important include:

  • Amitabha (A-mi-tuo-fo, Amida) — the Buddha of infinite light, the central figure of the Pure Land tradition
  • Avalokiteshvara (Guan Yin, Kannon, Chenrezig) — the bodhisattva of compassion
  • Manjushri (Wen Shu, Monju) — the bodhisattva of wisdom
  • Samantabhadra (Pu Xian, Fugen) — the bodhisattva of practice
  • Kshitigarbha (Di Zang, Jizo) — the bodhisattva who vows to liberate beings from the hell realms
  • Maitreya (Mi Le, Miroku) — the future Buddha, who will be the next historical Buddha

The multiplicity of Buddhas and bodhisattvas reflects the Mahayana understanding of the vastness of the universe and the many ways in which beings can be helped. Each Buddha and bodhisattva has a specific quality, a specific vow, and a specific way of helping.

The new scriptural canon #

The Mahayana Sutras are a large body of literature. The most influential include:

  • The Heart Sutra — 14 lines, perhaps the most concentrated text in all of Buddhism
  • The Diamond Sutra — a companion to the Heart Sutra, on emptiness and non-attachment
  • The Lotus Sutra — the most influential sutra in East Asian Buddhism
  • The Avatamsaka Sutra — a vast vision of interpenetration
  • The Vimalakirti Sutra — a layman as a teacher of the dharma
  • The Lankavatara Sutra — central to the Zen tradition
  • The Sukhavativyuha Sutra — central to Pure Land
  • The Prajnaparamita Sutras — the family of texts that introduced emptiness

A more complete treatment is in Mahayana Sutras.

Madhyamaka and Yogacara #

The two great philosophical schools of Indian Mahayana are Madhyamaka and Yogacara.

Madhyamaka (“Middle Way”) was founded by Nagarjuna (c. 150-250 CE) and is the school most associated with the teaching of emptiness. Nagarjuna’s key work, the Mulamadhyamakakarika (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way), uses logical analysis to show that all phenomena lack inherent existence. The school was further developed by Aryadeva, Chandrakirti, and Shantarakshita.

Yogacara (“Yoga Practice”) was developed by Asanga and Vasubandhu (c. 4th-5th century CE). The school is known for its analysis of consciousness, which it divides into eight types and analyzes in great detail. Yogacara introduced the influential idea of “consciousness-only” (vijnapti-matra), which holds that what we take to be the external world is actually a construction of consciousness.

The two schools are not in conflict; they represent two complementary ways of understanding reality. Madhyamaka emphasizes the emptiness of phenomena; Yogacara emphasizes the constructive nature of experience. Most Mahayana philosophical systems draw on both.

The skillful means doctrine #

A distinctive Mahayana teaching is the doctrine of skillful means (upaya). The teaching is that the Buddha uses whatever means are needed to help beings awaken, including teachings that appear to contradict each other. The doctrine of skillful means is sometimes described as a kind of theological humility: the Buddha teaches what is needed, not a single absolute truth.

The doctrine has been controversial. Critics have argued that it can be used to justify any teaching, on the grounds that the Buddha is using skillful means. Supporters have argued that the doctrine is grounded in the bodhisattva vow — the bodhisattva teaches what is needed, not what is philosophically tidy.

The Lotus Sutra presents the doctrine in its most developed form. The Parable of the Burning House (Chapter 3) and the Parable of the Phantom City (Chapter 7) both illustrate the idea. The teachings the Buddha has given are not all literally true; they are skillful means to lead beings to awakening.

Mahayana in East Asia #

Once Mahayana reached China, it took on new forms, blending with local thought and developing indigenous schools:

  • Chan (Zen) — the meditation school, which became the dominant form of Buddhism in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
  • Pure Land — devotional Buddhism focused on Amitabha Buddha; the largest form of Buddhism in China, Japan, and Korea today
  • Tiantai / Tendai — a comprehensive doctrinal school centered on the Lotus Sutra
  • Huayan / Kegon — focused on the Avatamsaka Sutra
  • Yogacara / Weishi — a philosophical school emphasizing “consciousness-only”

Each of these shapes East Asian Buddhist practice in distinct ways. The Chan (Zen) school emphasizes meditation and the direct pointing to one’s nature. The Pure Land school emphasizes devotional recitation of Amitabha’s name. The Tiantai/Tendai school provides a comprehensive philosophical framework that integrates all the teachings.

The bodhisattva vow in practice #

In modern Mahayana, the bodhisattva vow is often taken in a ceremony with a teacher. The vow is a commitment to work for the liberation of all beings, and it is renewed periodically. The vow is not just a verbal commitment; it is a way of orienting one’s life.

The bodhisattva vow is the heart of the Mahayana path. The meditator who takes the vow is not just practicing for their own awakening; they are practicing for the awakening of all beings. The commitment is radical, and the practice is long, but the vow is also a source of inspiration and direction.

Mahayana and the modern world #

The Mahayana traditions have been particularly influential in the modern world. The Zen traditions have spread widely in the West, and the Pure Land traditions have grown in East Asia. The Tibetan tradition, which is a form of Mahayana, has also been very influential in the West.

The modern reception of Mahayana has been characterized by dialogue and adaptation. The traditional forms — the meditation hall, the chant book, the monastic community — are being adapted to the modern context. The dialogue between Western culture and Mahayana has produced a rich tradition of teaching and practice.

Sources & further reading #

Donald S. Lopez Jr., Buddhist Scriptures (Penguin, 2004) — the standard anthology of Mahayana texts in English, with a thorough scholarly introduction. Paul Williams with Anthony Tribe, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition (Routledge, 2nd ed. 2000) — the most thorough single-volume treatment of the Indian Mahayana philosophical tradition. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism (Cambridge, 2nd ed. 2013), pp. 116–195 — the scholarly treatment of the development of the Mahayana. Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India (Allen & Unwin, 1962, 3rd ed. Buddhist Meditation, 1977) — the classic short treatment of Madhyamaka and Yogacara. Mark Siderits and Shōryū Katsura, trans., Nāgārjuna’s Middle Way (Wisdom, 2013) — the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā in the rigorous academic translation.